Variations in soil moisture and temperature and their relationship with CO₂ efflux in integrated production systems

Soil CO₂ efflux (ECO₂) allows inferences about microbial activity and the biological health of soils. In this context, from December 2024 to April 2025, soil ECO₂, temperature, moisture, and water flux (wflux) were evaluated in newly established integrated systems (cratylia intercropped with Marandu grass (C+M); sorghum intercropped with Marandu grass (ICLS); eucalyptus, sorghum, and Marandu grass (ICLFS); and ICLFS with cratylia (ICLFS+C)), pasture systems (renovated pasture (RP) and low-productivity pasture (LPP)), and an area of native Cerrado vegetation (NV). Soil ECO₂ differed among systems (p ≤ 0.05), except in April, when air and soil temperatures decreased. The ICLFS and ICLS systems showed the highest ECO₂ in December, respectively 6.5 and 5.5 µmol m^-2 s^-1, along with higher soil moisture (together with NV) and lower soil temperature (similar to NV, C+M, and ICLFS+C). In February, the month with the lowest recorded precipitation, lower ECO₂ (2.5 µmol m^-2 s^-1) and wflux (0.39 mmol m^-2 s^-1) were observed in the LPP, indicating reduced microbial activity, oxygen diffusion, and cellular respiration. The results showed that integrated systems, as well as well-managed pasture and native vegetation, maintain soil ecological functions even during periods of lower water availability, which is essential for long-term sustainability and productivity.